Activity 2: Key Thinkers of the Enlightenment, Part Two Challengers of Authority Part One: Challengers of Religion: Thomas Paine & Boron d’Holbach 1. What Christian beliefs did Thomas Paine reject? Why? Thomas Paine rejected beliefs such as God as the source of the 10 commandments, the virgin birth, and the resurrection and ascension of Jesus for similar reasons - the reader, he says, is expected to accept them without proof and with little or no eyewitness testimony. 2. Who did Baron d’Holbach’s critique of religion affirms basic Enlightenment ideals? Baron d’Holbach points out that religious and political leaders use religion to extend their authority and enslave people. Humans are taught to reject their ability for reason and give up their freedom in the name of religion, and he argues that free reason is the solution to the problems that they attribute to failure to please a deity. He describes religion as an explanation in the absense of facts, and advocates using reason to search for knowledge. Part Two: Political Reform Source: Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract 1. What did Jean Jacques Rousseau mean by the “general will”? What function did it serve in his political theory? Rousseau's general will is the net sum of all the wills of a society with conflicting wills canceling each other out. It's the "common sense" plainly apparent truth about a society's goals. To him, it is always right and should have absolute political power. 2. Why do some thinkers view Rousseau as a champion of democracy, whereas others see him as a spiritual precursor or totalitarianism? What do you think? He argued for democracy, but not for liberty, claiming that anyone who disagrees with the general will should be forced to follow it. I doubt Rousseau would support dictatorship, though. He seems to be advocating something like an "absolute democracy" with full political equality, a true democracy rather than a republic, and he explicitly says that political parties would dilute or ruin a political system based on the general will. A dictatorship clashes with this completely because whoever rules the country is not politically equal with the rest of the people and can establish a tyranny of an individual or a tyranny of a party. He is arguing for a tyranny of the majority. 3. How do the ideas expressed in the Social contract compare with Locke’s Second Treatise or Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence? Rousseau also describes a social contract, has a positive view of human nature, advocates a form of equality, and argues for what he sees as liberty, but rejects individual rights and the legitimacy of interests that do not match those of the government. Follow-Up Questions - Challenges of Authority 1. Thomas Paine's mental church seems to believe in a benevolent God, the use of reason and proof to back up any doctrine, and the principles taught by Jesus (who he praised as a moralist but not as the son of God). 2. Baron d’Holbach ignores the morals taught by religion and charity work by the religious while focusing only on the abuses. ----- Question: The ideas and philosophies of the Enlightenment are the foundation of political action and social change seen in the three phases of the French Revolution. To better understand this connection, write an essay that evaluates the connection between the enlightenment and two of the three phases of the French Revolution. Be sure to include specific examples of this connection by relying on the primary source documents included in this learning module. Essay Outline Phase 1 Emmanuel Joseph Seiyes Declaration of Rights Clothing, "citiyen" Tennis court oath, 3rd estate, declaration of rights (Kant, Locke, Jefferson), Checks & Balances? (Montesquieu) Equality of opportunity, not economic equality (most representative of national assembly from bourgeoisie, third estate over 95% of population) National Assembly Action * Equality of Taxation and Elimination of Feudal Dues * Ended Serfdom, Exclusion Hunting Rights for Nobles, Fees for Justice, Forced Labor * Peasants Became A Force for Order and Stability Political Liberalism –Constitutional Monarchy – Lawmaking Power in Hands of National Assembly –Increased Rights For Women – Divorce, Inherit Property, Obtain Financial Support from fathers of Illegitimate Children Economic Freedom –Abolished Monopolies, Guilds, Workers Combinations (Unions) –Took Away Property Rights of Nobles Religion –Religious Freedom for Jews and protestants –Nationalized Catholic Church’s Property and Abolished Monasteries –Took Control of Church Property and Sold It to Pay National Debt –Required that Clergy Take Oath of Allegiance to State Sharpened Conflict Between Educated Classes and Common People. Phase 2 Rousseau Phase 3 Seiyes Rousseau Napoleon agenda, code General will (Rousseau), equality (Kant, Locke, Rousseau), merit (Locke), religious choice (Paine) Continued emphasis on equality In his incendiary writing, Emmanuel Seiyes argued that the Third Estate, representing over 95% of the population, had all the features of a nation in itself, with no need for interference from the nobility or the church leadership. The Third Estate was the nation. This viewpoint was put into practice throughout the French Revolution. When the representatives of the Third Estate attempted to gain voting powers equal to the other 2 estates combined, and, after the king refused, met at a tennis court, declared themselves the National Assembly, and worked out a national agenda.* The Declaration of the Rights of Man was composed here.* Reflecting the attitudes of the Enlightenment, it asserted the freedom of thought and expression that Kant considered necessary. It also stated the belief, shared by Locke, Jefferson, and Rousseau, that all men are created equal. However, by guaranteeing the protection of property and liberty, it fit Locke's concept of a social contract far more closely than Rousseau's. [tennis court oath, declaration of rights, sovereign of people] [equality, customs, not Rousseau] [bourgeoisie, nor economic equality] During the first phase of the French Revolution, the Third Estate reined in the power of the nobility and church. [abolished serfdom and property rights of nobles] [Civil Constitution of the Clergy?] [legislative power in hands of national assembly, executive in king, montesquieu?] Napoleon's rule might be seen as a reversal of the Revolution at first glance, but he actually maintained some of its Enlightenment principles, in particular those related to the Third Estate and equality. [Napoleon continued emphasis on third estate and equality] Was Napoleon a threat to the gains of the Third Estate? Apparently, Seiyes himself didn't think so, because he was the engineer of Napoleon's takeover, and initially held the office of a secondary consul to Napoleon. [seiyes engineered napoleon's takeover] Napoleon established a code rooted in some of the ideas of the Revolution and Enlightenment, and helped to spead it to the rest of Europe during his conquests. [code] [spread to rest of europe] [Equal treatment under the law] It centralized the government, generating a feeling of nationalism consistent with (Locke?). [Centralization of the government, sovereign of people, loyalty to government, "National interests transcend dynastic and all other interests," "rule for the people, but not by the people"] The code continued the elevation of the Third Estate, guaranteeing equal protection under the law regardless of birth while eliminating feudal rights and separating shurch and state. [Elimination of feudal rights] [Religious tolerance] Napoleon made a point of rewarding loyalty and performance, and his code established freedom of choice in occupation, meritocratic principles consistent with (Locke?). [Careers of talent not birth] Although Rousseau didn't explicitly approve of restriction of expression, this phase of the Revolution had more in common with the ideas of Rousseau than Locke. Napoleon's spies were everywhere, and he abolished liberties with the ostensible goal of protecting the state and Revolutionary ideals. [lack of liberty, general will, rousseau] In his incendiary writing, Emmanuel Seiyes argued that the Third Estate, representing the "commoners" and over 95% of the population, had all the features of a nation in itself, with no need for the nobility or the Church leadership. The Third Estate was the nation. This viewpoint was put into practice throughout the French Revolution. When the king refused to give the representatives of the Third Estate voting powers equal to those of the other 2 estates combined, they declared themselves the National Assembly, which prompted the king to shut them out of the Estates-General. They met at a tennis court and promised to establish a constitution. Later, they composed the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Reflecting the attitudes of the Enlightenment, it asserted the freedom of thought and expression that Kant considered necessary. It also stated the belief, shared by Locke, Jefferson, and Rousseau, that all men are created equal. However, by guaranteeing the protection of property and liberty, it fit Locke's concept of a social contract far more closely than Rousseau's. A hint of Montesquieu's separation of powers could be interpreted in the fact that, at first, the king was supposed to retain some executive authority. During the first phase of the French Revolution, the Third Estate reined in the power of the nobility and Church. Feudal abuses of the nobility such as serfdom, unequal taxation, and exclusion hunting were abolished. The land owned by the Church was seized, and clergy were made electable employees of the government. The emphasis on "commoners" was cultural as well as legal. A feeling of nationalism, in which sovereignty and loyalty belonged to the people and state rather than the king, was a central part of the Revolution and also compatible with the writings of philosophes who promoted the idea of a social contract. "Citoyen" and "citoyenne" replaced titles that distinguished class. Men of the bourgeoisie wore the trousers of the sans-culottes. Napoleon did not restore the freedom of expression trampled on by Robespierre, and he reversed the rights of women and children legislated earlier, but he was not completely contrary to the ideals that started the Revolution. Seiyes himself helped to engineer Napoleon's takeover, and Napoleon's regime actually helped to maintain the Revolutionary gains most related to the equality of the Third Estate. Napoleon established a code rooted in some of the ideas of the Revolution and Enlightenment. He also promoted the nationalism of the first 2 phases. The code continued the elevation of the Third Estate, guaranteeing equal protection under the law regardless of birth, one of the priorities of Locke, while eliminating feudal rights and separating shurch and state. Napoleon made a point of rewarding loyalty and performance rather than nobility, and his code established freedom of choice in occupation, meritocratic principles also consistent with Locke. However, this phase of the Revolution had more in common with Rousseau than Locke (or, more correctly, the dictatorial interpretation of Rousseau). Napoleon's spies were everywhere, and he abolished liberties with the ostensible goal of protecting the state and Revolutionary ideals. During his conquests, Napoleon spread his code, along with sentiments such as equal protection, to the rest of Europe, and by 1960 over 70 states had modeled their laws after it.